You cannot buy EU citizenship as a standalone status; it follows nationality of a Member State.[1] Investment routes provide residence and limited Schengen travel, not a passport.[2] Portugal’s ARI starts at €250,000 for qualifying cultural projects, requires seven days’ presence in year one, and keeps citizenship separate; applicants may qualify after five years’ legal residence.[3][4][5] We suggest checking ARI eligibility with Portugal’s immigration authority first.
Conditions for EU Citizenship by Investment
| Option | Price | Timeline | Requirements | Restrictions |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Malta (discontinued) | N/A | N/A | N/A | Commercialisation of nationality breached EU law [6] |
| Portugal ARI | €250,000 - €500,000 | 7 days in the first year, 14 days every two years | 5 years of legal residence for citizenship [3][5] | Investment buys residence, not guaranteed citizenship [5] |
| Greece Golden Visa | €400,000 - €800,000 | N/A | N/A | Investment does not lead directly to citizenship [7] |
| Hungary Guest Investor | €250,000 - €1 million | N/A | N/A | Investment does not guarantee citizenship [8] |
| Italy Investor Visa | €250,000 - €2 million | 2 years | 10 years of legal residence for citizenship [9][10] | Visa does not equal citizenship [9] |
| Ireland Naturalisation | €175 + up to €950 | 5 years of residence | 365 days of continuous residence before applying [11] | Requires long-term residence [11] |
How to obtain EU citizenship legally
- 1. Separate citizenship from investment residence
Start with the legal distinction. EU citizenship cannot be purchased separately: it follows automatically when you become a national of an EU Member State.[1] A "golden passport" grants nationality, while a "golden visa" provides residence rights and limited Schengen travel without conferring EU citizenship.[2] Treat offers of direct Maltese citizenship with particular caution, because the relevant scheme was ruled contrary to EU law on 29 April 2025 and discontinued in July 2025.[6][12]
- 2. Choose a genuine residence route
Compare official programmes before transferring money. Portugal offers qualifying ARI routes including €250,000 for cultural projects and €500,000 for certain funds or research, but excludes direct and indirect property investment.[3] Greece has property thresholds of €800,000 in specified high-demand areas and €400,000 elsewhere, with a €250,000 route for certain listed buildings requiring restoration.[7] Hungary offers a qualifying €250,000 fund investment or €1 million donation, while Italy lists investments from €250,000 in an innovative start-up to €2 million in government bonds.[8][9]
- 3. Check the path and waiting period
Model the full naturalisation timeline. Portugal requires only seven days of presence during the ARI permit’s first year and fourteen days in each subsequent two-year period, but nationality remains a separate application.[4] An adult may qualify to apply for Portuguese nationality after at least five years of legal residence, whereas Italy ordinarily requires a non-EU national to complete at least ten years.[5][10] Ireland requires five years of residence within the previous nine years, including 365 continuous days immediately before applying.[11] Before choosing, confirm how residence is counted and request the current processing estimate from the responsible national authority.
- 4. Prepare funds and documents
Build the evidence file carefully. For Portugal’s ARI, the criminal-record certificate must have been issued less than three months earlier and be properly translated and apostilled or consularly certified.[4] Missing, expired or incorrectly certified documents must be corrected through the official ARI portal.[4] Keep evidence showing the lawful source and transfer of investment funds, because the European Commission identifies money-laundering, corruption, tax-evasion and security risks in investment migration schemes.[13] Before paying, ensure that the programme, investment recipient, adviser and payment instructions can all be verified through official channels.
- 5. Apply for residence and maintain it
Residence comes before citizenship. Submit the application through the destination country’s official process, complete its checks and retain proof that every investment and residence condition remains satisfied. Italy’s Investor Visa lasts two years and does not grant citizenship, while Hungary requires eligible fund units to remain blocked for at least five years.[8][9] Portugal’s lighter physical-presence requirement does not remove its separate nationality-law conditions.[4] Check permit validity, renewal deadlines and investment status directly with the issuing authority rather than relying only on an intermediary.
- 6. Apply separately for nationality
Naturalisation is the final legal step. Apply only after meeting the chosen country’s residence and nationality requirements, understanding that an investment never guarantees approval.[4][5] For comparison, Ireland charges €175 when applying and up to €950 after approval.[11] Verify the result through the Member State’s official nationality records and passport authority before treating yourself as an EU citizen. Once naturalised, a US citizen gains EU rights to move, reside, work and study across the Union, alongside specified voting and consular-protection rights.[14]
Risks, Limitations and Guarantees
Investing in EU citizenship or residence routes carries inherent risks and limitations. Firstly, it's crucial to understand that EU citizenship cannot be purchased independently; it is granted automatically upon acquiring nationality of an EU Member State[1]. While investment schemes can provide residence and limited travel rights, they do not guarantee citizenship[2]. For example, Portugal's ARI programme requires a minimum investment of €250,000 but mandates five years of legal residence before one can apply for citizenship[3][5].
Another risk involves the legal standing of certain schemes. The Maltese citizenship programme was ruled illegal by the Court of Justice of the European Union in 2025, leading to its discontinuation[6]. Moreover, applicants should be aware that many programmes have stringent requirements, such as proof of lawful source of funds and specific documentation, which can complicate the process[13].
Before proceeding, we recommend verifying the legitimacy of the investment programme and the credentials of any advisers involved. Always check with the official immigration authority of the respective country to ensure compliance with current regulations. If conditions are not met or if you wish to withdraw, the process can be complicated, often requiring formal applications or legal advice. Understanding these factors is essential to minimise risks associated with investment migration.
Links and references
- 1. EU citizenship - EUR-Lex
- 2. Report on Investor Citizenship and Residence Schemes in the European Union
- 3. Autorização de Residência para Investimento – Art. 90.º-A - AIMA
- 4. FAQ Residence Permit for Investment Activity (ARI) - AIMA
- 5. Nacionalidade portuguesa - Justiça.gov.pt
- 6. Union citizenship: the Maltese investor citizenship scheme is contrary to EU law
- 7. Greece Draft Budgetary Plan 2025
- 8. Residence permit for guest investor - National Directorate-General for Aliens Policing
- 9. Investor Visa for Italy - Ministry of Enterprises and Made in Italy
- 10. Citizenship - Italian Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Cooperation
- 11. Becoming an Irish citizen through naturalisation - Government of Ireland
- 12. Malta Citizenship by Merit - Aġenzija Komunità Malta
- 13. Investor Citizenship Schemes - European Commission
- 14. EU citizenship: Rights and opportunities - European Commission
Explore More on EU Citizenship
Discover valuable resources and insights about EU residency options.
Learn More
